As per modern Biotechnology, the leading principles of Biotechnology are:

• Genetic engineering: It is used to alter the DNA of the target organism and also modifies the organism's phenotype.
• Bioprocess engineering: It preserves the sterile prerequisites that support the development of large quantities of desired microbes and eukaryotic cells. Such cells are further used to produce or modify new biotechnological products such as vaccines, enzymes, antibiotics, etc.

Recombinant DNA technology applies to combine DNA molecules from two distinct species. It can be conducted and executed by using some basic tools. Various tools employed for this purpose are:

• Restriction enzymes:
  The restriction enzyme is also called a restriction endonuclease, a protein created by bacteria that cleaves DNA at distinctive sites and the molecules.
  The restriction enzymes are of two kinds: endonucleases and exonucleases. Endonucleases cut nucleotides within the DNA strands and exonucleases cut from the ends of DNA strands. Restriction endonuclease always cuts the DNA at specific points, and where it cuts DNA, it is called the restriction site.

• Vectors and their cloning:
  The vectors are used to carry and integrate the desired gene. The most typical vectors in recombinant DNA technology are plasmids and bacteriophages. Cloning of vectors is a small piece of DNA stably maintained in DNA.

• Competent host:
  The competent host introduces recombinant DNA; it is an essential device of recombinant DNA technology. There are several methods to insert recombinant DNA into the host, such as biolistic, microinjection, gene gun, alternate cooling and heating, use of calcium ions, etc.

The process of recombinant DNA technology comprises the selection of the selected gene for administration into the host, then picking an ideal vector for integration of the gene, and then recombinant DNA is constructed. After that, it is inserted and held in the host and later carried forward to the offspring. The methodology of recombinant DNA technology is in detail below:

• Isolation of the genetic material:
  The genetic material of all living organisms is "nucleic acid," but in most organisms, it is DNA or RNA. Therefore, the first step of recombinant DNA technology is to separate the chosen DNA into a pure form, such as free from other macromolecules.
  The plant's or animals' cells are treated with certain enzymes to isolate DNA. Such enzymes include cellulase for plant cells, lysozyme for bacteria, and chitinase for fungi. 
• Cutting of DNA at specific locations
  Restriction enzymes are used as molecular scissors which cut DNA at specific locations.It is significant to search where the selected gene is introduced into the vector genome. The sites where the length of DNA is cut are known as the restriction sites.
• Amplification of gene of interest using PCR
  PCR stands for a polymerase chain reaction, which constructs numerous copies of a DNA sequence utilising the enzymes such as DNA polymerase. It also helps amplify the few copies of DNA into millions of copies. PCR reactions run on the thermal cyclers and use components like templates, primers, enzymes, nucleotides, etc.
• Insertion of recombinant DNA into the host cell/ organism
  It is the process of transformation where recombinant DNA is introduced into the host cell or organism. As you know, bacterial cells do not accept unfamiliar DNA readily. This process makes them competent so that they receive new DNA easily.
• Obtaining the foreign gene product
  In this process, desired genes are selected for administration and multiplied in the host to be expressed as a protein under optimal conditions. The recombinant DNA then becomes the recombinant protein. For obtaining a large amount of recombinant protein, many cell cultures are required. It demands large-scale production to develop products that help humans. For this process, vessels called bioreactors are used.
• Downstream processing
  Before keeping the protein as the final product, it demands downstream processing, which involves separation and purification, formulation with suitable preservatives, clinical trials to test the efficiency and protection of the product, and quality control test.

1. Multiple choice type questions:
   1. Micro-organisms can be produced in the bioreactors with the help of-
      1. Support growth system
      2. Agitated growth system
      3. Suspended growth system
      4. Both (a) and (c)
   2. During 'gene cloning', what is summoned as 'gene taxi'?
      1. Vaccine
      2. Plasmid
      3. Bacterium
      4. Protozoa

Solution :

1. 1. Both  (a) and (c)
   2. (b) Plasmid

1. What is biotechnology?
   It is a technology that utilises biological techniques, living organisms, or parts to generate distinct products.
2. What do you mean by restriction enzymes?
   Restriction enzymes refer to the protein created by bacteria that cleaves DNA at specific sites along the molecule.
3. What do you mean by downstream processing?
   Downstream processing refers to the retrieval and the cleansing of biosynthetic products such as pharmaceuticals from natural resources such as animals, plant tissue, etc.

1. Are the NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Biology Chapter 11 sufficient for second-term exam practice?
   Yes, NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Biology Chapter 11 provides solutions for all questions; you will get a lot of questions in the second term exam from these exercises. By grasping these concepts, you can get good marks in your finals.
   
   
2. What is the primary content in NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Biology Chapter 11?
   It  comprises of:
   • Biotechnology: Principles and Processes
   • Its applications
   • Principles of Biotechnology
   • Processes of Recombinant DNA Technology
   • Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology
     
     
3. Name any five separate deficiency signs in plants.
   As per the information in the chapter, the leading five deficiency symptoms in plants are-
   • Chlorosis
   • Delay in Flowering
   • Necrosis
   • Inhibition of cell division
   • Deformation
     
     
4. How many marks can I expect from Chapter 12 of NCERT Solutions?
   This chapter comes under Unit 4; as per the previous pattern, many questions are expected. To get hands-on the concepts, you can use the solutions available at the MVSgo app.

Chapter 11 of biology Class 12 Biotechnology: Principles and Processes talks about the principles and processes of biotechnology. If you want to learn them in a fun and easy way, you should download the MVSgo app, as they have a streamlined and structured way to make studies easier for the students. You can also play different science games on it, plus you can also apply for the interschool challenge.